Community-Driven Water Service Management as a Service-Learning Model for Expanding Rural Drinking Water Access

Ony Frengky Rumihin; Risma Marleno; Tisno Subroto

doi:10.67412/jppm.v2i2.53

Authors

Ony Frengky Rumihin Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya
Risma Marleno Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya
Tisno Subroto Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.67412/jppm.v2i2.53

Keywords:

Collaborative Governance, Community-Driven Water Service Management, Institutional Capacity, Rural Drinking Water Access, Service-Learning

Abstract

Despite substantial investments in rural drinking water infrastructure, equitable access to safely managed drinking water remains a persistent challenge in rural and island communities due to institutional limitations and weak community engagement. This study develops and evaluates a Community-Driven Water Service Management (CDWSM) model grounded in service-learning to strengthen sustainable rural drinking water governance. A sequential exploratory mixed-methods design was employed. The qualitative phase involved an intrinsic case study in South Buru Regency, Indonesia, using in-depth interviews, field observations, and document analysis, which were analyzed through constructivist grounded theory to formulate the initial CDWSM framework. The second phase implemented participatory action research integrated with service-learning, engaging universities, local governments, water service providers, and community members in iterative cycles of planning, action, reflection, and evaluation. The final phase validated the proposed model through a household survey analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings reveal that drinking water management remains predominantly administratively driven, limiting meaningful community participation despite adequate technical capacity. Service-learning significantly enhanced institutional capacity, collaborative governance, community ownership, and the long-term sustainability of water services, thereby expanding access to safe drinking water. The study introduces the CDWSM model as a novel theoretical framework integrating institutional capacity, community learning, collaborative governance, social ownership, and service sustainability, extending community-based water management theory through the integration of service-learning and collaborative governance perspectives while offering practical guidance for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6.

References

Adenova, D., Tazhiyev, S., Sagin, J., Absametov, M., Murtazin, Y., Trushel, L., Miroshnichenko, O., & Zaryab, A. (2023). Groundwater Quality and Potential Health Risk in Zhambyl Region, Kazakhstan. Water, 15(3), 482. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030482

Adom, R. K., Simatele, M. D., & Reid, M. (2023). Assessing the social and economic implications on water security in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality, Eastern Cape of South Africa. Journal of Water and Health, 21(7), 939–955. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2023.078

Ahmed, B. Y., Tolera, S. T., Temesgen, L. M., & Geremew, A. (2025). Domestic water consumptions and associated factors in rural household of Harari region, Eastern Ethiopia; A cross sectional study. Frontiers in Public Health, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1395946

Akter, M. R., Ahmad, M., Akter, S., Habiba Akther Jakia, & Hasan, M. K. (2026). Navigating economic fragility and climate risk: Transformative pathways to eco-welfare in vulnerable coastal ecosystems. Journal of Sustainability, Society, and Eco-Welfare, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.61511/jssew.v3i2.2026.2689

Alem, K. M. (2025). Community perceptions of ecosystem services, drivers of degradation, and proposed conservation actions for Denbiq Wetland in West Gojam, Ethiopia. BioRisk, 23, 45–61. https://doi.org/10.3897/biorisk.23.156866

Amoak, D., Bruser, G., Antabe, R., Sano, Y., & Luignaah, I. (2023). Unequal access to improved water and sanitation in a post-conflict context of Liberia: Evidence from the Demographic and Health Survey. PLOS Water, 2(4), e0000050. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000050

Azat, S., Kuldeyev, E., Khalkhabay, B., Baikadamova, A., Sultakhan, S., & Berndtsson, R. (2024). Pathogen Contamination of Groundwater Affecting Drinking Water Quality with Potential Health Effects in Pavlodar Region, Kazakhstan. Water, 16(20), 2970. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202970

Azeez, O., Henderson-Mitchell, R. J., LaFevor, M. C., & Gregg, A. (2023). Socioeconomic predictors of access to improved water sources, sanitation facilities, and household water treatment in Nigeria. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 13(11), 875–884. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2023.169

Belay, D. G., & Andualem, Z. (2022). Limited access to improved drinking water, unimproved drinking water, and toilet facilities among households in Ethiopia: Spatial and mixed effect analysis. PLOS ONE, 17(4), e0266555. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266555

Bolatova, Z., Sharapatova, R., Kabiyev, Y., Berndtsson, R., & Tussupova, K. (2025). Towards Sustainable Solutions: Assessing Rural Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation in Atyrau, Kazakhstan. Water, 17(5), 664. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17050664

Bolatova, Z., Sharapatova, R., Kanagat, K., Kabiyev, Y., Berndtsson, R., & Tussupova, K. (2025). Household Satisfaction and Drinking Water Quality in Rural Areas: A Comparison with Official Access Data. Sustainability, 17(15), 7107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17157107

Browning, E. G., Bartram, J. K., Guo, A. Z., Tracy, J. W., Kelly, E. R., Fisher, M. B., & Seidu, Z. (2025). Manganese and iron in drinking water in three West-African countries: Implications for health, acceptability, and disinfection. PLOS Water, 4(6), e0000234. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000234

Castillo, C. V., Núñez Cobo, J., Mancilla Escobar, G., & Salas Bravo, S. (2024). Development and assessment of a vulnerability index for access to rural drinking water and sanitation services in the semi-arid region of north–central Chile. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 14(3), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2024.106

Chimombo, M. J. (2025). Bridging the divide: analysing disparities in drinking water services between urban and rural areas in Lilongwe, Malawi—implications for water justice and infrastructure equity. Frontiers in Water, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2025.1615202

Cohen, A., Rasheduzzaman, M., Darling, A., Krometis, L.-A., Edwards, M., Brown, T., Ahmed, T., Wettstone, E., Pholwat, S., Taniuchi, M., & Rogawski McQuade, E. T. (2022). Bottled and Well Water Quality in a Small Central Appalachian Community: Household-Level Analysis of Enteric Pathogens, Inorganic Chemicals, and Health Outcomes in Rural Southwest Virginia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8610. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148610

Danquah, E. O., Frimpong, F., Boadi, S., Peprah, C. O., Aduhene-Chinbuah, J., Opoku, P., Danquah, F. O., Baafi, E., Botey, H. M., Aidoo, K. A. S., Acheampong, P. P., Pokuaa, Y., & Asante, M. D. (2026). Forest and biodiversity conservation for food and livelihood security: a review of opportunities and challenges of community-based approaches. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 9(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2026.1890643

Dongzagla, A., Dordaa, F., & Agbenyo, F. (2022). Spatial inequality in safely managed water access in Ghana. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 12(12), 869–882. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2022.099

Duan, Y., Wu, R., Ji, H., Chen, X., Xu, J., Chen, Y., Sun, M., Pan, Y., & Zhou, L. (2022). Drinking water behavior and willingness to use filters by middle-aged and elderly residents in rural areas: A cross-sectional study in Tengchong, China. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.961870

Espinoza, S., Forni, L., Lavado, A., Olivera, M., Tapia, C., Vega, B., Balderrama, M., & Escobar, M. (2022). Connecting Water Access with Multidimensional Poverty: The Case of Tupiza River Basin in Bolivia. Water, 14(17), 2691. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172691

Evance, I., Ongeta, F., Chebet, S., Kitchel, A., Reep, M. van de, Baraza, M. K., Maina, J., & Onyango, A. (2025). Assessing factors affecting the use of chlorine dispensers for household water treatment in rural Kenya, Malawi, and Uganda. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 15(1), 84–94. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2024.407

Falk, J., Globisch, B., Angelmahr, M., Schade, W., & Schenk-Mathes, H. (2022). Drinking Water Supply in Rural Africa Based on a Mini-Grid Energy System—A Socio-Economic Case Study for Rural Development. Sustainability, 14(15), 9458. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159458

Fentie, M., Assefa, E., Tena, T., Aklog, D., Tadesse, A., & Janka, E. (2024). Determinant Factors of Microbial Drinking Water Quality at the Point of Use in Rural Ethiopia: A Case Study of the South Gondar Zone. Water, 16(22), 3282. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223282

Gizaw, Z., Demissie, N. G., Gebrehiwot, M., Destaw, B., & Nigusie, A. (2023). Enteric infections and management practices among communities in a rural setting of northwest Ethiopia. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 2294. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29556-2

Gizaw, Z., Gebrehiwot, M., Destaw, B., & Nigusie, A. (2022). Access to basic drinking water services, safe water storage, and household water treatment practice in rural communities of northwest Ethiopia. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 20623. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-25001-y

Gurung, R., Sharma, K., & Rai, R. (2024). Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Facilities in Sikkim: Findings from National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 5. Water Policy, 26(7), 707–717. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2024.069

Gurung, R., Tirkey, C., Takri, K. K., Diyali, N., Choubey, M., & Rai, R. (2023). Determinants of access to improved drinking water and sanitation in India: evidence from India Human Development Survey-II (IHDS). Water Policy, 25(10), 980–995. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2023.083

Hapsari, J. P., Karmilah, M., Madrah, M. Y., Setiawan, C., Naufal, Z., Lailatul Fitriyah, A., Nurchasanah, J., Ilma Mustafidah, D., Najib Mafaza, A., & Kukuh Agusta, A. (2025). Integration of Smart Rainwater Harvesting and Islamic Ecological Ethics: IoT-Based Community Empowerment in a Coastal Area of Demak. Dimas: Jurnal Pemikiran Agama Untuk Pemberdayaan, 25(2), 145–165. https://doi.org/10.21580/dms.v25i2.29198

Hou, Y., Wei, Y., Wu, S., & Li, J. (2023). Mapping the Social, Economic, and Ecological Impact of Floods in Brisbane. Water, 15(21), 3842. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213842

Huber, L., Rickert, B., Schmoll, O., & Vargha, M. (2024). Equitable access to drinking-water: focus on European Union member states. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 14(11), 1169–1181. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2024.170

Husein, M., Nounkeu, C. D., Armah, S., & Dharod, J. M. (2023). Examination of water quality at the household level and its association with diarrhea among young children in Ghana: Results from UNICEF-MICS6 survey. PLOS Water, 2(6), e0000049. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000049

Idrissi, Y. EL, Benabbou, M., Rais, Z., & Haji, M. EL. (2024). Brackish water pre-treatment method: selection of the study area and water sample testing. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 14(3), 244–260. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2024.294

Ishaque, W., Sultan, K., & ur Rehman, Z. (2024). Water management and sustainable development in Pakistan: environmental and health impacts of water quality on achieving the UNSDGs by 2030. Frontiers in Water, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2024.1267164

Jones, B. M., Kanevskiy, M. Z., Connor, B., Peirce, J., Tracey Sr, B., Curtis, K., Urban, F. E., Wesen, S., Shur, Y., & Maio, C. V. (2025). Climate change and infrastructure development drive ice-rich permafrost thaw in Point Lay (Kali), Alaska. Environmental Research: Ecology, 4(3), 035003. https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-664X/adf1ac

Karambiri, Y. R., Robert, E., Nikiema, D. E., Lamberts, C., Gangneron, F., Pourinet, L., & Rochelle-Newall, E. (2026). Socio-health vulnerabilities and diarrheal disease risks in rural Burkina Faso: A livelihoods approach. PLOS Water, 5(5), e0000429. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000429

Koppen, B. van, Hofstetter, M., Nesamvuni, A. E., & Chiluwe, Q. (2020). Integrated management of multiple water sources for multiple uses: rural communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Water SA, 46(1 January). https://doi.org/10.17159/wsa/2020.v46.i1.7870

Love, M., Beal, C., Pene, S., Rarokolutu, R. T., Whippy, A., Taivoce, S., Shrestha, S., & Souter, R. T. (2023). Social networks and other forgotten components of the WaSH enabling environment in Fiji. Water Policy, 25(1), 38–58. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2022.202

Lutfia, L., Uswatun Khasanah, A., & Hairani, A. (2024). Characteristics of Community-based Rural Water Supply System in Jambon Village, Kulon Progo City. BIO Web of Conferences, 144, 03002. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202414403002

Malek, N. M., & Duku, J. A. C. (2024). Barriers to Clean and Safe Water Access in Juba: AA-QQ-RD Framework on SDG 6 in South Sudan. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), 9(9), e002984. https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v9i9.2984

Mbana, Z., & Sinthumule, N. I. (2024). What is there to drink? Water (in)justice in the democratic South Africa. Frontiers in Water, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2024.1354477

McClelland, P. H., Kenney, C. T., Palacardo, F., Roberts, N. L. S., Luhende, N., Chua, J., Huang, J., Patel, P., Sanchez, L. A., Kim, W. J., Kwon, J., Christos, P. J., & Finkel, M. L. (2022). Improved Water and Waste Management Practices Reduce Diarrhea Risk in Children under Age Five in Rural Tanzania: A Community-Based, Cross-Sectional Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(7), 4218. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074218

Melton, F. S., Huntington, J., Grimm, R., Herring, J., Hall, M., Rollison, D., Erickson, T., Allen, R., Anderson, M., Fisher, J. B., Kilic, A., Senay, G. B., Volk, J., Hain, C., Johnson, L., Ruhoff, A., Blankenau, P., Bromley, M., Carrara, W., … Anderson, R. G. (2022). OpenET: Filling a Critical Data Gap in Water Management for the Western United States. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 58(6), 971–994. https://doi.org/10.1111/1752-1688.12956

Mendez-Ruiz, J. I., Barcia-Carreño, M. B., Mejía-Bustamante, L. J., Cornejo-Pozo, Á. K., Salas-Vázquez, C. A., & Valverde-Armas, P. E. (2023). Assessment of the Performance of a Water Treatment Plant in Ecuador: Hydraulic Resizing of the Treatment Units. Sustainability, 15(2), 1235. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021235

Mujeebullah, M., Mirzazadah, A., & Quraishi, E. (2025). Investigation of the role of community participation in water resource management initiatives: perspectives from developing countries. International Journal of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, 1(1), 68–82. https://doi.org/10.64394/ijnsm.v1i1.38

Murei, A., Mogane, B., Mothiba, D. P., Mochware, O. T. W., Sekgobela, J. M., Mudau, M., Musumuvhi, N., Khabo-Mmekoa, C. M., Moropeng, R. C., & Momba, M. N. B. (2022). Barriers to Water and Sanitation Safety Plans in Rural Areas of South Africa—A Case Study in the Vhembe District, Limpopo Province. Water, 14(8), 1244. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081244

Mvongo, V. D., Defo, C., & Tchoffo, M. (2022). Application of the Water Service Sustainability Index to water services in sub-Saharan Africa: the case studies of eight councils in the Southern region of Cameroon (Central Africa). Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 12(2), 168–185. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2022.157

Nakibuule, B., Semakula, H. M., Nseka, D., Wasswa, H., Aboda, C., Nampereza, P., Namakula, L. N., & Ndejjo, R. (2026). Categorization of household drinking water and sanitation service levels and associated determinants in Uganda. Scientific Reports, 16(1), 6089. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-37203-9

Nounkeu, C. D., Metapi, Y. D., Ouabo, F. K., Kamguem, A. S. T., Nono, B., Azza, N., Leumeni, P., Nguefack-Tsague, G., Todem, D., Dharod, J. M., & Kuate, D. (2022). Assessment of drinking water access and household water insecurity: A cross sectional study in three rural communities of the Menoua division, West Cameroon. PLOS Water, 1(8), e0000029. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000029

Pace, C., Fencl, A., Baehner, L., Lukacs, H., Cushing, L. J., & Morello-Frosch, R. (2022). The Drinking Water Tool: A Community-Driven Data Visualization Tool for Policy Implementation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(3), 1419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031419

Pineda, C. P., Fuentes, N., & Arriagada, A. (2022). Relationships as a Basis for Safe Drinking Water Provision by Cooperatives in Rural Chile. Water, 14(3), 353. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14030353

Prajapati, C. S., Priya, N. K., Bishnoi, S., Vishwakarma, S. K., Buvaneswari, K., Shastri, S., Tripathi, S., & Jadhav, A. (2025). The Role of Participatory Approaches in Modern Agricultural Extension: Bridging Knowledge Gaps for Sustainable Farming Practices. Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, 47(2), 204–222. https://doi.org/10.9734/jeai/2025/v47i23281

Santos, T. M., Wendt, A., Coll, C. V. N., Bohren, M. A., & Barros, A. J. D. (2023). E. coli contamination of drinking water sources in rural and urban settings: an analysis of 38 nationally representative household surveys (2014–2021). Journal of Water and Health, 21(12), 1834–1846. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2023.174

Sharma, P., Shah, D., Negi, A., Singh, J., KS, A., Chauhan, S., & Mubeen. (2025). Agroforestry Systems for Enhancing Biodiversity and Soil Conservation in Agricultural Landscapes. Asian Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 11(1), 507–523. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajsspn/2025/v11i1499

Shuja, A. (2025). A Vision for Public Health Transformation in Pakistan Beyond the Pandemic Era. Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences, 19(06), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs02025196.1

Silveira, P., Rebelo, M. T., & Salvador, D. (2024). Challenges of Providing Safe Drinking Water in African Rural Communities: A Case Study on the Oio Region, Guinea-Bissau. Water, 16(24), 3621. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16243621

Singh, A., & Naik, G. (2024). Rural drinking water supply program and societal development: Evidence from the early implementation phase of India’s Jal Jeevan Mission. PLOS ONE, 19(11), e0312144. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312144

Smiley, S. L., Subulwa, A. G., & Herald, S. (2025). Spatial Barriers to Improved Water and Sanitation in Rural Zambia. Water, 17(14), 2132. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17142132

Sudiyani, Y., Widmer, K., Andreas, A., Tasfiyati, A. N., Athaillah, Z. A., Muryanto, M., Aziz, A. A., Lee, E. Y., Lee, Y., & Kang, S. (2022). Impact of Gravity-Driven Membrane Filtration Water Treatment Systems on a Rural School in Indonesia. Sustainability, 14(21), 13733. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142113733